Heed University Research Guide

Purpose

The purpose of this guide is to provide the student with basic information regarding the preparation of research for theses, projects and dissertations.

References

The following references are considered basic essentials to any student about to write a dissertation or other scholarly paper.

A.  Style Manuals

1.  American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2^nd ed.). Washington, D.C., 1976. 136 pages. Although the primary emphasis is to help authors prepare manuscripts for publications, it also has chapters on writing styles, editorial style, typing, publication policies, theses, dissertations and students' papers.

3. Turabian, K.L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (4^th ed.).   Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973.

B.  Writing Style

1.  Bernstein, T.M. Miss Thistlebottom's Hobgoblins. New York: Farrar, Strauss & Giroux, 1971.

2.  U.S. Government Printing Office. Effective Revenue Writing 1. Dept. of the Treasury, Internal Revenue Service. 1969, 261 pages. A functional approach to effective writing for revenue agents at an economical cost of $2.15

3.  Strunk, William Jr., & White, E.B. The Elements of Style (2^nd ed.) New York: Macmillan, 1972, 78 pages. Originally prepared by Professor Strunk more than sixty years ago as "the little book," it is a classic on the elementary rules of usage and principles of composition.

C.  Research Sources

1.  O'Brien, Robert and Soderman, Joanne. The Basic Guide to Research Sources: New York: Morningside Editorial Associates, The New American Library, 1975, 245 pages. ($1.95). This publication provides initial references for inexperienced researchers. In addition to general resources (e.g., newspapers, encyclopedias) there are references for seventeen special subjects (e.g., art, education, mathematics, etc.).

2.  Psychological Abstracts. Washington, D.C. : American Psychological Association, bi-monthly, 1929 to date. This accumulation of books and articles contains abstracts and indexes by subject matter and authors.

3.  The New York Times Index. New York: The New York Times, bi-monthly, 1851 to date.  This index includes classifications of news articles by alphabetical abstracts of the city editions of the New York Times on subjects, persons and organizations with numerous cross-references.

5.  Recent Publications in the Social and Behavioral Sciences: The ABS Guide. Beverly Hills, California The American Behavioral Scientist, Sage Publications, Annual, 1965 to date.  This guide supplements New Studies in the American Behavioral Scientist beginning in 1957. The guide contains about 1000 annotations annually of books and articles in many languages.

D.  Government Publications

1.  Guide to U.S. Government Serials and Periodicals. McLean, Va. : U.S. Superintendent of Documents, 1964 to date.  This guide contains a comprehensive accumulation of publications by department or branch, by title, date and frequency of publication.

2.  Monthly Catalog of United States Government Publications. Washington, D.C. : U.S. Superintendent of Documents, 1895 to date.  A catalog of governmental publications which includes an index by subject, title, and a one-sentence description. A comprehensive index is prepared every ten years.

E.  Other References

1.  A Dictionary--popularly known as a desk or college edition with 1300 to 1500 pages will provide definitions, pronunciations, spelling, syllabication and synonyms. Unabridged dictionaries contain about 200,000 entries and are usually 2,000 to 3,000 pages.

2.  Roget's Thesaurus in dictionary form provides easy access to words that are synonyms, antonyms, reminders, and "treasuries" (thesaurus) of related words.

Project Development

The most difficult experience the student faces is to formulate a problem for exploration. This section outlines in some detail certain sources of problems. Specifically, how does one start?

A.  Problems Exist

Too often, students expect to be assigned a project or problem by some faculty member. However, this is not the usual case. The initial difficulty in selecting a project is the inability to identify problems that are quite clear to experienced investigators and thesis consultants. Many of these problems face students in their professional life and are solved by them in terms of judgment without recourse to scientific approaches. Therefore, one of the challenges facing the student is to reorient his thinking about these practical problems so that he learns to solve them "scientifically."

B. Where to Look

1. Area of specialization. A student should look to his area of specialization for a topic since this is his area of "expertise." In many instances, this area coincides with his choice of professional career.

2. The student's courses are a source of information for possible topics. Suggestions concerning topics generally come from lectures, discussions, term papers and reports, and readings. Contacts with professors outside the class are also profitable.

3.  Extensive reading. Students should read both extensively and intensively: extensive reading over a range of topics for breadth of background and intensive reading on selected themes related to the area of specialization. All worthwhile studies depend in a large measure on the work of predecessors and co-workers. The following suggestions are intended to guide students in canvassing special types of educational, psychological, and sociological literature.

1. Published studies in certain fields have been analyzed to determine the frequency with which they have been investigated.

2. Authoritative statements, and critiques of research in a particular field are summarized in The Encyclopedia of Educational Research and Review of Educational Research.

3. Dissertation Abstracts International summarizes doctoral dissertations which have been completed in colleges and universities in the United States and other countries.

In reviewing the literature in a particular area, a student might keep the following questions in mind.

What practical problems must be met by those who do the actual work?

In current and recent research, what problems are under investigation?

What facts, principals, and generalizations have resulted from research in your field?

What practical implications for graduate work may be drawn from these results?

To what extent have the findings of research actually been applied to your field?

What problems remain to be subjected to research and what problems are now emerging?

What are the chief difficulties to be met in pursuing the research yet to be conducted in the field?

What research techniques or procedures have been developed in the field?

4. Analyzing an area of knowledge. The are of knowledge should be reasonably limited in scope. For example, research areas in administration should be subdivided into such areas as elementary or secondary level, school law, financial structure, supervision, non-teaching personnel, para-professionals, etc. However, an area should be large enough to prove meaningful in terms of permitting the development of integrating conceptual patterns or schemes.

5. Should consideration be given practices and needs? Beginners in research may well study tangible problems representing existing practices and needs. A systematic analysis of existing practices and needs in a particular field is a challenging intellectual exercise, whether the area examined is local, state, regional, or national.

6. Repetition or extension of existing investigations. It is entirely appropriate to repeat or extend existing studies. It has been pointed out that research is never complete; that studies can be accurate only for a period of time; and that many investigations should be repeated for purposes of verification. In addition, many observations or discoveries have not been followed up to reach important conclusions or applications.

7. "Offshoots" of investigation underway. Sometimes a problem, method, or discovery that "buds out" of an investigation in progress proves more fruitful than the original line of research.

C.  Selecting a Problem

Factors to be considered in selection of a research problem are both external and internal.

1. Novelty and avoidance of certain problems.

2. Importance of the problem to the profession. Can the problem be implemented?

3. Interest and intellectual curiosity--are professionals interested in the problem? Can you find people to support it?

4. Training and personal qualifications--does the researcher gave the necessary training and background to conduct the study?

5. Availability of data--is the data immediately available or must the researcher travel great distances to collect data?

6. Special equipment and working conditions--will the researcher need special equipment to conduct the research? Does the study require special working conditions, laboratories, peculiar environments, etc?

7. Sponsorship and administrative cooperation--are there professional who can sponsor the student's research project? Is the University willing to cooperate with the student?

8. Costs and returns--how much will the study cost? Can the student finance the cost? Is it worth the investment?

9. Time factor--how long will it take to complete the study? Is the student willing to give the required time to the project in order to complete it satisfactorily?

10. Other Kinds of Research. In addition to the traditional experimental study, there are other kinds of research designs that can be utilized to satisfy the dissertation requirement. These include historical, survey (descriptive), case study(genetic), and field project. However, the same organization is utilized with some variations.

Historical. This type of study searches for knowledge through a description of past events or facts by means of critical inquiry. Gathered data is analyzed with historical perspective as part of the process of social development rather than isolated facts. The historical method is based not upon experimentation, but upon reports of observations that cannot be repeated.

Survey. This approach, sometimes called descriptive, attempts to provide facts on which professional judgments may be made. Descriptive investigations include studies that purport to present facts concerning the nature and status of anything: People, objects, conditions, events, thought, etc. These studies generally contrast, describe, explain and relate.

Case Study. Case studies take into account all pertinent aspects of one thing or situation, employing as the unit of study an individual, an institution, a community, or group. This approach consists of data relating to some phases of the life history of the unit or relating to the entire life process, whether the unit is an individual, a family, a social group, an institution, or a community.

Field Study. Field studies tend to break away from traditional research patterns. They may be written in the first person, may call attention to the specific steps taken by the investigator, and may illustrate by photographs, samples of work completed, anecdotal records, and detailed research-subject discussions.

HEED OFFERS THE STUDENTS TWO TYPES OF DISSERTATION FORMATS: 

The first one is the Experimental Design, and the second alternative is the Case Study Design, which is often used in psychoanalytic research. Students can use either format. This should be discussed with a mentor before beginning the research.

OUTLINE FOR THE HEED DISSERTATION- EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

The following represents the format for a doctoral study according to APA standards.

A.  Statement of the Problem

1. The title of the study does nothing more than name the topic. The introductory chapter, preferably the first few paragraphs, should be used to give an adequate statement of the problem. Using the question form in the introductory section, as compared with a declarative statement, has some advantages by way of sharpening and clarifying the problem to be presented.

2. The topic must be restricted or delimited to something that is workable.

3. Occasionally, a provisional topic proves too narrow or too localized to promise satisfactory results. Sometimes one part of a tentative topic is broadened while another part is narrowed.

4. There are several ways of stating the problem.

1. A question or questions.

2. Declarative statement(s).

3. Statement followed by restatement in the form of a question.

4. A statement followed by a series of hypotheses.

B.  Definition of the Problem

1.  Ways to define the problem.

1. Analysis of the major problem or problems in terms of subordinate problems.

2. Statement of the limits or scope of the study.

3. An historical account, remote or recent.

4. A survey of previous studies or related studies.

5. An analysis of previous studies or related subjects.

6. Preliminary survey.

7. Description of the general nature of the problem.

1. Type
2. Source
3. Procedure

8. Statement of limitations of techniques employed.

9. Recognition of assumptions and implications.

10. Importance of the study.

11. Definition of terms.

C. Chapter One

1. The finished project should follow the APA format.

1. Introduction.

2. Statement of the problem -- including questions and hypotheses, if appropriate.

3. Definition of terms.

4. Delimitations of the study.

5. Organization of the study -- what do you plan to cover in each chapter?

6. Summary.

D.  Chapter Two

1. Will review and analyze the related literature.

2. The following resources are available:

Encyclopedia of Educational Research

Education Index

Review of Educational Research

School Review

Elementary School Journal

Phi Delta Kappan

Bibliographic Index

Reader's Guide

International Index

U.S. Catalogue

Cumulative Book Index

Book Review Digest

Journal of Educational Research

Psychological Abstracts

Annual Review of Psychology

Psychological Bulletin

3. The actual format which a student will use will depend on the kind of study he/she is conducting. However, each student is encouraged to obtain copies of the literature is presented. In any case, a student should not just list the studies. Rather, he/she should analyze them according to an approved style.

4. The review of the literature should deal with the studies in the following manner:

1. How was the study conducted? A brief description should do it.

2. What groups were compared?

3. What were the results? Significant/insignificant.

4. If insignificant -- why?

5. How does it relate to my study?

5. The chapter should conclude with a summary. This includes a restatement of hypotheses, followed by some statements indicating whether the literature supports the hypotheses.

E. Chapter Three

This chapter deals with the subjects, materials and procedures for conducting the study.

1. Subjects. This includes a description of the community and its cultural characteristics.

1. Location of population.

2. What percentage of the State's overall population?

3. Description of the growth pattern.

4. Social and cultural characteristics.

1. white/non-white.

2. Median age of males and females.

3. Average size of household.

4. Median years of school.

1. Economic characteristics.

1. median income, in comparison with county, state, and nation.

2. Labor force-- percent of county, state, and nation.

3. Percent of professionals, managerials, sales, private household workers, blue collar workers, etc.

2. Materials. This section includes instruments used in collecting and analyzing data.

1. Standardized tests.

2. Other instruments.

3. Description of instruments -- describe test and what they are designed to measure. Also state why selected as well as their validity and reliability. (See Buro's Mental Measurements Yearbook.)

3. Procedures. This section deals with procedures used in conducting the study. Specifically, it will describe and explain the various criteria used in developing the design of the study. The following represent some of the areas which are normally covered in this section.

1. Criteria for selecting subjects. This will include variables used to select subjects for the experimental and control groups.

2. The manner in which the subjects are assigned to the various experimental and control groups.

3. What methods are employed to insure homogeneity of the groups.

4. Statistical procedures used to arrive at homogeneity. This will include a careful description of the various statistics utilized as well as tests of significance.

Students who select not to conduct experimental studies must be able to describe how the study is to be carried out. Attention must be directed to organization, form and structure. The researcher is obligated to inform his reader regarding the methods and procedures used in gathering an organizing the data, its treatment and analysis, and its classification. The reader must, after reading this chapter, be able to conduct the same study.

4. Summary. This will contain a brief summary statement setting forth what has transpired in this chapter as well as a brief statement regarding the purpose of the next chapter.

F.  Chapter Four

This chapter traditionally analyzes the data gathered in the execution of the study, raw data is not included here. This chapter should commence with a brief introduction.

1. State clearly what you propose to do.

2. List each procedure.

3. Present the criteria which will determine whether the procedure has produced the desired change or outcome.

4. Show whether the desired changes or outcomes were significant.

Chapter Four generally contains tables, charts, etc., which illustrate the data. It is suggested that students refer to the APA Manual for specific directions in preparing charts and tables.

The actual analysis of the data may be accomplished by direct comparison of the experimental and control groups on the variables under experimentation. Other studies may present the analysis by again listing the hypotheses and there presenting the applicable analysis of data which either supports or rejects them.

The presentation of data for analysis need not follow rigid rules. It must, however, adhere to a format that is logically clear, and easy to follow. Students are encouraged to review studies which appear in Dissertation Abstracts and write for copies of studies which are related and that utilize designs which correspond to their own.

In writing the analysis the student will be required to utilize technical terms which may require explanation. These terms must be explained in the chapter. This suggests that the writer should be quite certain that he uses these terms correctly and that they say what the writer intends.

G.  Chapter Five

This chapter deals with the conclusions and presents recommendations. Specifically, it summarizes the experiment or study in terms of purpose, procedures and design. The second section should analyze the findings of the investigation in light of the related literature. This can be accomplished most effectively by presenting the hypotheses, followed by the findings with those which appear in the related literature. The investigator should be explain similarities as well as differences. The last section generally deals with conclusions and recommendations which grow out of this study and should closely parallel the basic hypotheses. Recommendations for further research should be included here.

H.  Appendix

This section follows the last chapter and contains data relevant to the study which are not appropriate for inclusion in the main body of the dissertation. Some of the data which can appear in the section are:

1. Randomized blocks.

2. Special forms for collection of raw data.

3. Directions to persons directly involved in conducting the study or experiment (judges, consultants, sample groups, assistants).

4. Tables, charts, graphs dealing with raw data. Also statistical formulae should be listed here.

5. Qualifications of persons involved in the study. Specifically, assistants or others who participate in the experiment or study.

I.  Bibliography and List of References

The researcher should consult the APA Manual for the format of this section. It appears in the final section of the document. See section 3.57 of the APA Manual for a discussion of the difference between a reference list and a bibliography.

OUTLINE FOR THE HEED DISSERTATION- CASE STUDY DESIGN

1.  Title page (your Mentor has a copy of the format for title page)
   Title in CAPS.
  "A Dissertation Presented to….."
    Name and Degrees
   Sign-off lines for Mentor and Readers, with Dates

2.  Abstract

3.  Table of Contents

4.  Acknowledgements

5.  Introduction
 Title of the Study
 A.  Statement of the Problem
 B.  Definition of the Problem

6.  Chapter One 
 Statement of the Research Question(s)
 Definition of Terms in the Research Question(s)
 Delimitation of the Study
 Organization of the Chapters

7.  Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
   Introduction
   Review of Theoretical and Clinical Literature Related Specifically to the     
    Research Question(s) and/or the Patient
   Summary of the Literature
   Statement of How your Study will Address Gaps in the Literature

8.  Chapter Three: Methodology
  Restatement of the Research Question(s)
  Scope of the Study
  Data Collection
  Data Analysis
  Treatment During Research
  Reliability and Validity

9.  Chapter Four: Data
   Introduction of Subject(s), and the Necessary Background about the Data to    
   Follow
  Verbatim Session Material wherever possible, and/or Summarized Session
   Material

10. Chapter Five: Findings
 Summary of the Findings
 Answers to, or Inferences Drawn from, the Research Question(s), supported by
  Specifid Data

11. Chapter Six: Discussion
  Findings in the Context of the (published) Literature
  Countertransference Issues (and Supervision)
  Contributions of the Research Committee
  Predictions about the Case(s)
  Generalizability of  the Findings
  Remaining Questions
  Summary

12.  References 

13.  Bibliography